Ethereum's Post-Merge Architecture
Ethereum's record stretches from the 2015 Frontier release through the September 2022 consensus layer replacement. Each protocol revision left observable traces - the 2016 hard fork that reversed the DAO exploit, the 2017 Byzantium gas cost rebalance, the 2019 Istanbul precompile additions, the 2021 London base fee introduction. The Merge continued the sequence - substituting […]
Casper - Ethereum's Latest Protocol Upgrade
Ethereum secures its ledger through a sequence of protocol upgrades. The most recent, Casper, replaces proof-of-work with proof-of-stake. Under Casper, validators lock ether into a deposit contract; they propose or attest to blocks. Each correct attestation earns ether. Each incorrect or absent attestation triggers a penalty that destroys part of the deposit. The protocol withholds […]
Cardano - A Third-Generation Blockchain Built on Peer-Reviewed Research
Charles Hoskinson, co founder of Ethereum, launched Cardano in 2017 through Input Output Hong Kong, a company he established with Jeremy Wood in 2015. The project's stated goal is to deliver a blockchain that balances decentralization, scalability along with long-term viability. Every protocol change is subjected to academic peer review before release - papers appear […]
Ethereum's Difficulty Bomb Explained
Ethereum's âdifficulty bombâ denotes a hard coded exponential rise in the proof-of-work puzzle complexity on the mainnet. Each block height triggers a step function that lengthens the time between successive blocks. The chain therefore loses throughput at an accelerating rate. Miners confront shrinking rewards measured in ether per unit of electricity. The network enters a […]